PERIOD
1 AND 2
PULSES
(Grain Legumes)
Cowpea (Vigna
unguiculata)
The cowpea is a member of
the pulses or legumes. It belongs to the family called Leguminosae. It is rich
in proteins and commonly fed on by man. The fruit of cowpea is called Pod.
Cultural Practices
1. Land Preparation: Weed row burning, stumping, ploughing,
harvesting, ridging
2. Varieties or Cultivars: Erect type, Creeping type, Ife Brown, Ife
Bimpe etc.
3. Climatic and Soil Requirement:
(a) Temperature: 270C
-350C
(b) Rainfall: 60cm – 125cm
per annum. Abundant sunshine with rich sandy-loam soil.
4. Method of Propagation: By seeds
5. Planting date: Early planting – April, Late planting – August
In the south, early planting
– April, Late planting is August and September
In the north – Late planting
is July and August
6. Seed rate: 20-25kg/ha
7. Spacing: It depends on variety e.g. spreading type 27cm x 90cm,
Erect Type – 30cm x 70cm
8. Planting: Seed dressing is done before planting. Seeds are directly
planted on the field, manually or mechanically at a planting depth of 2-4cm.
Germination occurs 3-5 days after planting.
9. Thinning: Is done 2-5 weeks of age
10. Weeding: Is done manually, chemically (with herbicide) once or
twice before plants fully spread.
11. Fertilizer application: Phosphatic fertilizer for nodule and pod
formation is applied at 250kg or five bags per hectare
12. Maturity Period: 3-4 months after planting
13. Harvesting: Brown mature pods are harvested by handpicking. Late
maturing varieties are harvested after four months. Mature dry pods should be
harvested before shattering.
14. Processing:
(a) Sundrying of harvested
pods
(b) Shelling, by beating
the dry pods with sticks or by pounding lightly in a mortar on a small scale.
Shellers are used on a large scale
(c) Winnowing is done to
remove broken shells or pods
15. Storage:
(a) Ensure proper drying
before storage
(b) Shelled beans are
treated with insecticides before storage to prevent weevil attack
(c) Shelled seeds are
sorted in jute bags or rhumbus on a small scale
(d) Storage is done in
silos on a large scale
(e) Hermetic storage can be
done in airtight containers
Pests
of Cowpea
(a) Pod borer
(b) Bean Beetle (Callosobruchus
spp)
(c) Leaf hopper
Diseases
of Cowpea
(a) Cowpea mosaic disease
(b) Bacterial blight
(c) Nematode disease
(d) Damping off diseases
Uses
of Cowpea
(a) It is used as food by
man. It is a source of plant protein.
(b) It can be ploughed into
the soil as green manure.
(c) It helps in nitrogen
fixation in the soil.
PERIOD
3 AND 4
ROOTS
AND TUBERS
Yam
Yam belongs to the family
Dioscoreaceae. It is a root and tuber crop popularly grown in West Africa and
is rich in protein
1. Land Preparation: Land clearing, ploughing, harrowing and ridging
2. Varieties or cultivars
(a) Dioscorea rotundata
– White yam
(b) Dioscorea alata
– Water yam
(c) Dioscorea bulbifera
– Aerial yam
(d) Dioscorea cayensis
– Yellow yam
(e) Dioscorea dumentorium
– Trifoliate or Three-leafed yam
(f) Dioscorea esculenta
– Chinese Yam
4. Climatic and Soil Requirement
(a) Temperature: 250C
– 300C
(b) Rainfall: 100cm – 180cm
per annum. Abundant sunshine and a well drained sandy-loam soil, rich in humus
5. Method of Propagation: Yam sett, Yam seed or Yam mini sett
6. Seed rate: One seed yam or sett per hole; 5 tonnes of seed yam per
hectare is required
7. Planting Date: Early yam is planted between November and December,
while late yam is planted between March and April
8. Planting: Open a hole on a heap. Place one yam sett inside with the
cut surface turned upward and placed slanting at an angle of 450
before covering it with soil. The cut yam sett should be dried under the sun
and dusted with chemicals e.g. aldrin dust, before planting. This prevents
rottening and attack of pest on the sett.
9. Spacing: 90cm x 100cm; Mini sett – 25cm x 100cm. Sprouting occurs
three to six weeks after planting
Cultural
Practices
1. Mulching: To conserve soil moisture and prevent rottening of yam
setts
2. Regular weeding
3. Application of fertilizer: Apply 200kg (four bags) of NPK
fertilizer per hectare 3 months after planting by ring method.
4. Staking: Staking is done with strong sticks or bamboo. It ensures
adequate exposure of the leaf surface to sunlight and increases yields
Reasons
for Staking Yam
(a) It increases the yield
of yam
(b) It improves air circulation
within the farm
(c) The leaves are better
exposed for photosynthesis
(d) It minimizes damage to
vines
(e) It reduces the attack
of pests and diseases in the leaves
(f) It also increases farmer’s
ease of movement on the farm
5. Training of the Vine: This is done regularly after staking to
ensure even spreading and neatness of the vines to receive sunlight
Maturity
Period: 8-13 months after planting
Harvesting:
Dig the soil gently with cutlass to remove tuber from the soil
Processing:
Yam tubers are processed into yam powder or flour or consumed locally
Storage:
Yam tubers are stored in barns. It can also be stored in form of yam flour and
dried, peeled yam tubers. It can also be stored in pits
Pests
of Yam: Yam tuber beetle, Yam shoot beetle, Rodents e.t.c
Diseases
of Yam: Yam mosaic disease, Yam leaf spot, Yam tuber rot
Uses of Yam
1. It is used primarily for
human consumption
2. It is used in feeding
livestock e.g. goat and sheep
3. Yam tubers contain
certain chemicals used in manufacturing drugs
CASSAVA
Cassava is a root and tuber
crop. It has underground root which can be consumed by man and livestock after
processing. It can grow in relatively poor spoils and in low rainfall areas. It
is rich in carbohydrates.
1. Land Preparation
Bush clearing, stumping,
ploughing, harrowing and ridging
2. Varieties/Cultivars: There are two main varieties
(a) Sweet cassava (Manihot
palmate)
(b) Bitter cassava (Manihot
utilissima)
The bitter cassava contains
poisonous hydrocyanic acid in it roots
3. Climatic and Soil requirement
(a) Temperature: 210C-350C
(b) Rainfall: 150cm -200cm.
A well drained, rich, friable loamy soil
4. Method of Propagation: By stem cutting
5. Planting Date: Cassava sticks or cuttings are planted from March to
September
6. Spacing: 1m x 1m
7. Planting: Stem cutting of 25cm – 30cm long is pushed into the ridge
or heap slanting at an angle of 450C and 2/3 of it buried. Sprouting
occurs 7-14 days later
Cultural
Practices
1. Weeding: It is done
regularly
2. Fertilizer application:
250kg/ha of NPK fertilizer 4-6 weeks after planting
3. Maturity period: It
occurs 8-15 months depending on varieties
8. Harvesting: Use cutlass to remove some soil and pull the stem gently
so that the tubers are pulled along or use cassava puller.
9. Processing: Cassava is processed into garri, foofoo, flour or
livestock feed
10. Storage: Cassava is stored in processed form in sack as garri or
foofoo
Pests
of Cassava
1. Variegated Grasshopper
2. Rodents
3. Green Spider Mite
4. Aphids
Diseases
of Cowpea
1. Cassava Mosaic Disease
2. Bacteria Blight
3. Angular Leaf Spot
Uses
of Cassava
1. Cassava is used
primarily as food for man and feed for livestock
2. It is an important
source of starch both for domestic and industrial uses, especially for laundry
purposes
3. It can be used to
produce flour used in baking industries
4. It can also be used in
brewery for making alcohol
Ways
to Reduce the Level of Hydrocyanic Acid in Cassava Tuber
1. Through roasting or
frying
2. Through drying
3. Through fermentation
4. By boiling or cooking
5. By grating and squeezing
out the water.
END OF WEEK EIGHT NOTES
WEEK 7
HUSBANDRY OF SELECTED CROPS
CEREAL CROPS
Maize (Zea mays)
Maize (also called corn) is a member of the grass family (Gramineae). It is a cereal crop which produces grains that can be used as food by man and livestock.The seed/fruit of maize is a Caryopsis i.e it has its epicarp fused with the mesocarp.
Cultural Practices
1. Land Preparation
i. Clearing of land with cutlass or bulldozer
ii. Making ridges or heaps with hoe (manually) or mechanically by ploughing, harrowing and ridging
2. Varieties/Cultivars
Dent maize, Flint corn, Flour corn, Popcorn, Sweet corn, Pod Corn
3. Climatic and Soil Requirement
i. Temperature - 260C - 300C
ii. Rainfall - 75cm - 150cm per annum
iii. Well-drained sandy-loam soil of pH 6-7
4. Method of propagation: By seeds
(a) Planting: Seeds can be planted manually with dibber, stick or cutlass or mechanically by planter at 2-4cm deep. Germination occurs 4 -7 days later
(b) Planting date: (i) Early maize: March/April
(ii) Late maize: July or August
Planting of early or late maize is dependent on location and rainfall
(c) Seed rate: 25kg - 30kg per hectare at two to three seeds per hole. Quantity of seeds used depends on spacing or plant population desired.
(d) Spacing: 90cm x 30cm at one seed per hole or 75cm x 25 cm at two seeds per hole
5. Supplying: i.e replanting seeds to replace ungerminated ones
6. Thinning: i.e removal of weak plants from a stand to give rise to one or two vigorous crop plants.
7. Fertilizer application
(a) Apply NPK 15:15:15 (20kg/ha - Four bags) at planting
(b) Apply 250kg (Five bags) or 150kg (three bags) of Urea per hectare, five to six weeks after planting
(c) Apply farmyard manure,poultry droppings or organic manure as side dressing or by broadcast method.
8. Weeding: It is done manually(hoeing, cutting)or chemically (use of herbicides) or mechanically (with machines e.g plough).weeding is done 3-4 times regular intervals.
9. Control of Pests and Diseases: It is done at regular intervals using appropriate chemicals and pesticides.
10. Maturity Period: (i) 2-3 months (60-90days) for wet maize
(ii)3-4 months (90-120 days) for dry maize after planting
11. Harvesting: It is harvested green (fresh) or dry when the silk dries and turns brown. Maize is harvested by plucking by hand, sickle or use of machines such as corn picker, combine harvester.
12. Processing and Uses: Boiling, roasting or processed into cornflour, cornflakes or used for corn meal, beer, baking flour and livestock feed.
13. Storage: Dried cobs are stored in cribs, rhumbu or fireplace on a small scale or in a silo in large scale.
Pests of Maize: stemborer, grasshopper, maize weevil
Diseases of maize: Corn smut, Maize rust, Leaf Spot
Uses of Maize
i. It is consumed by man as a staple food
ii. It is used in preparing livestock feed
iii. It is used in preparation of flour and corn oil
iv. Starch can be extracted from maize
RICE (Oryza sativa)
Rice is also a member of the grass family Gramineae. The seed or fruit of rice is also a caryopsis
Cultural Practices
1. Land Preparation: manually with cutlass, stumping, ridging or mechanically by ploughing, harrowing and ridging
2. Varieties or Cultivars: Swamp rice (TOMA, BG79 and GFB24), Upland rice (Agbede)
3. Climatic and Soil Requirement
(a) Temperature: Over 200C
(b) Rainfall: 75cm - 120cm for upland rice and over 250cm for swamp rice with light fertile soil
4. Method of Propagation: (a) By seed, manually or mechanically
(b) Seed rate: 65kg per hectare at 2-3 seeds per hole
(c) Planting date; Southern Nigeria: April and May; Northern Nigeria: August and September
(d) Nursery Practices:
(i) Swamp rice requires nursery which is done in fertile, water-soaked soil.
(ii) Seeds are broadcast and germination begins 4-5 days.
(iii) Seedlings are transplanted at between 7-8 weeks of growth to the field. Seeds are sown in the nursery around May or June and transplanted in July or August to the field.
(e) Spacing: 25 -30cm apart depending on varieties.
5. Supplying and thinning
6. Fertilizer application: Apply 150kg, 3 bags of NPK fertilizer per hectare at planting by broadcasting.
7. Weeding: This is done to ensure rapid growth of rice.
8. Pests and Disease Control: This is done by spraying appropriate chemicals.
9. Maturity Period: 4 - 7 months depending on variety.
10. Harvesting: Red heads are cut off with knife, sickle or combine harvester.
11. Processing of Rice
(a) Sundrying: It is done immediately after harvesting for 3-4 days.
(b) Threshing; This is separating of grains from the stalk by either beating with stick, threading with feet or by use of mechanical threshers
(c) Winnowing: This is the fanning or blowing away of chaff or unwanted dust and remains of stalks and other residues. It is done by throwing the grains in the air. After winnowing, the grains of rice remain enclosed by the husk to form what is called “Paddy”
(d) Parboiling: This process is done to reduce breakage of grains during pounding. It also brings some vitamins to the outer layer of the grains and reduces labour in removing the husks. The paddy rice is heated by putting it into boiling water for about 12-15 hours. The rice swells and husks are forced apart. The parboiled rice is now sundried.
(e) Hulling: This is the parboiled of the husks from the grains are pounded gently to remove the expanded husks. The husks are the separated from rice by winnowing.
(f) Polishing: Sometimes the paddy rice is threshed and polished by machine. Polishing is the use of specially designed machines to remove husks and other layers covering the grains. The portion removed is known as Rice Bran which is very rich in protein and vitamins. Consumption of polished rice may cause a vitamin deficiency called Beri-Beri due to the removal of bran rich in protein.
12. Storage: As paddy rice or in processed forms in silos or jute bags
Pests of Rice: Birds, Rodents, Rice weevils
Diseases of Rice: Rice Smut, Rice Blight, Brown Leaf Spot
Uses of Rice
(a) It is consumed by man
(b) Rice bran is used for feeding livestock animals
(c) It is used as starch for laundry purposes
(d) It can be used to make alcohol
END OF WEEK 7 NOTES
CLASSIFICATION DISTRIBUTION AND USES OF CROPS
Definition of Crops
Crop refers to plants of the same kind that are grown on a large scale for food, clothing and other human uses
Classification of crops
Agricultural crops are usually classified as follows
(a) Based on their life cycle
(b) Based on food nutrient supplied
(c) Based on economic importance or uses
Classification Based on Life Cycle
Based on life cycle crops can be classified into the following
(a) Annual crops: These are crops which grow and mature within one year e.g maize, rice, cowpea, millet, vegetable, cotton, groundnut yam, sweet potato, soyabean, melon, kenaf etc
(b) Biennial crops: These are crops which grow and mature within two years. In the first year, the vegetative parts develop while in the second year they develop the reproductive parts. Examples are pepper, ginger banana plantain onion garlic garden egg sugar beet pineapple.
(c) Perennial crops: These are crops which grow and mature in more than two years e.g cocoa, banana, orange, mango, oil palm, rubber, cashew, coffee
(d) Ephemeral crops: These are crops that complete two or more life cycles within a year e.g amaranthus, celosia corchorus
Classification Based on Number of Seed Leaves
Based on number of seed leaves crops are classified into
(a) Monocotyledons: These are crops that have one seed leaf or cotyledon e.g barley, maize, wheat, oats coconut, plantain, ginger, rice, sugarcane, rye, sorghum (guinea corn) oil palm, pineapple, sisal etc
(b) Dicotyledons: These are crops that possess two seed leaves or cotyledons e.g cowpea, soyabean, lima bean, groundnut, bambara nut, pigeon pea, rubber, pepper, garden egg, tomato, cocoyam, mango etc. and trees like Iroko, Afara, Mahogany, etc
Classification Based on Food Nutrient Supplied
Based on food nutrients supplied, crops can be classified into the following
(a) Carbohydrates: These crops supply energy to man and livestock e.g cereals (such as maize, rice, wheat, millet, etc) and all tubers ( e.g yam,cocoyam, cassava, sweet potato, Irish potato, carrots etc)
(b) Proteins: They build-up flesh and replace worn out tissues e.g cowpea, lima bean, groundnut, bambara nut and pigeon pea
(c) Fats and oil: They give more energy than carbohydrates e.g oil palm, coconut, soya bean, groundnut, cotton seed, sunflower, castor plant, melon
(d) Minerals: These crops protect the body against diseases and are essential for metabolic activities. Examples are calcium, magnesium, sodium, sulphur, manganese, molybdenum. Crops which supply minerals include vegetables, e.g water leaf and fruits e.g citrus, pineapple, banana, mango etc.
(e) Vitamins: Vitamins also protects the body against sicknesses and diseases. Examples of crops supplying vitamins are fruits (citrus,pineapple, apple etc.) and vegetables (e.g amaranthus, celosia, fluted pumpkin (ugwu) etc.
Classification Based on Economic Importance or Uses
Based on uses, crops are classified into:
1. Cereal Crops: These belong to the grass family. Examples are maize, guinea corn, wheat, barley, oat,rice,millet etc.. They supply carbohydrates
2. Pulses (grain legumes): These crops are rich source of protein e.g cowpea, soyabean, groundnut, lima bean, pigeon pea etc.
3. Roots and Tuber Crops: These crops produce tubers under the ground and provide carbohydrates e.g cassava, yam,cocoyam,sweet potato, sugar beet, carrot etc.
4. Vegetable Crops: These crops supply vitamins and minerals e.g onion, amaranthus, cauliflower, spinach, bitter leaf etc.
5. Fruit Crops: These also supply vitamins and minerals e.g orange, banana, pineapple mango, pawpaw, cashew
6. Beverage Crops: These provide food drinks when processed e.g. cocoa, coffee, kolanut, tea
7. Spices: These also provide vitamins and minerals. They also add flavour to stew or soup e.g ginger, pepper, onion, garlic
8. Oil Crops: These are crops which can provide oil when processed both for domestic and industrial uses e.g oil palm, groundnut, melon,coconut, soya bean, cotton
9. Fibre Crops: These are used for making clothing material, ropes, bags etc. Examples are cotton, sisal, hemp, kenaf, hibiscus etc.
10. Latex crop: These are crops which provide white sticky liquid or latex used in plastic industries. Examples are Indian rubber and Para rubber
11. Drug Crops: These are used for making drugs and medicinal substances. Examples are Neem plant, Indian hemp, Cocaine, Heroine, Quinine, Tobacco, Scent plant
12. Forage Crops: These are grasses and legumes for feeding livestock. Examples are:
(a) Grasses: elephant grass, giant star grass, spear grass, guinea grass etc.
(b) Legumes: Calopogonium, centrosema, stylosanthes, mucuna, Devil’s bean (sun hemp) and Pueraria (Tropical Kudzu)
13. Ornamental Crops: They beautify our surroundings. Examples are Hibiscus, Ixora, Morning Glory, Allamanda
14. Dye Crops: It is used for making dye e.g kolanut
15. Stimulants:These are crops that make the mind and body active e.g kola, coffee
PERIOD 2
SOME CULTURAL PRACTICES IN CROP PRODUCTION
1. Transplanting: This is the transfer of seedlings from nursery beds to their permanent positions in the field. Transplanting is done mostly in the morning or in the evening with tools such as hand trowel, digger, hoe, cutlass etc. The crops are removed with a ball of soil around its roots to prevent root damage. Mulching is done after transplanting to reduce evapo-transpiration
2. Shading: This is the act of erecting cover above seedlings. It reduces evapo-transpiration and protects seedlings from harsh, external environmental conditions like sun and rain. Materials for shading include palm fronds, tall grasses, tarpaulins
3. Nursery: Nursery can be practiced in poly pots, seed boxes and bed etc. Nursery sites should have good top soil with good drainage. Nurseries are usually shaded. Weeding, pest and disease control as well as application of fertilizer are usually practiced in the nursery.
4. Thinning: Thinning is the removal of weak plants from a stand to give rise to one or two vigorous crop plants.
5. Supplying/Filling-in: This is the replacement of seeds that fail to germinate or seedlings that dies. It is usually done within 2 weeks or first planting to obtain uniformity in growth
6. Seed Rate: Seed rate refers to the quantity of seeds required to plant on one hectare of land. Quality of seeds used usually depends on spacing or plant population desired e.g seed rate of maize is 25-30kg/hectare
7. Weeding: This is the removal of plants growing where they are not wanted. It can be done manually with hoe, cutlass etc or chemically with the use of herbicides or mechanically with machines e.g spring-tine cultivator, plough etc.
8. Mulching: This is the covering of heaps or ridges with dry leaves to reduce soil temperature, conserve soil moisture and prevent rottening of some crop plants e.g yam setts
9. Spacing: Spacing refers to the distance within and between crop plants in a farmland. This ensures greater yield of crops and prevents over-crowding and allows easy ventilation within and between rows of crop plants. For example, the spacing for maize could be 90cm x 30cm at one seed per hole or 75cm x 25cm at two seeds per hole
LEAVE FIVE LINES FOR DIAGRAM
10. Staking: Staking is the act of providing stakes or certain plant or wood to enable the crop plants stand erect and prevent lodging. Staking allows for good fruiting and keeps fruits from disease attack arising from contact with soil. Staking is usually done before flowering. Examples of crop plants that require staking are tomato and yam.
11. Pruning: Pruning is the removal of lower branches of crop plant using sharp cutlass or saw. Pruning encourages better canopy formation, more light penetration and improved air movement. Examples of crops that usually require pruning are cocoa, oil palm, rubber, orange, mango etc.
PERIOD 3 AND 4
FACTORS AFFECTING CROP DISTRIBUTION IN NIGERIA
1. Climate
Climatic factors such as rainfall, temperature, relative humidity, wind and sunlight affect the distribution of crops . Of all these factors, rainfall is the most important. In southern Nigeria, crops like rubber, banana, cocoa, oil palm, plantain, maize, vegetables, orange etc. thrive well because of the heavy rainfall and the high humidity conditions which favour water-loving crops. On the other hand, crops which mature within a short period are grown in Northern Nigeria. Examples of such crops are rice, millet, cowpea, groundnut, soyabean, cotton, onion, tomato etc
2. Soil(edaphic factor): The type and the nature of soil affects crop distribution. The rainforest region which has deep rich soils, supports the growth of deep-rooted crops such as yam, cassava and tree crops like cocoa, mango, kolanut, orange etc. In the savanna zone, the soils are not too deep and are more sandy in nature. Crops like cotton, cowpea, groundnut, onions and carrot thrive well there.
3. Pests and Diseases: Areas of high rainfall favour the growth of many disease causing organisms such as fungus, bacteria, viruses etc unlike areas of low rainfall such as the savanna
4. Economic Factors: The value of crop, its availability in the market and the profit derivable from it are some of the economic factors that affect the distribution of such a crop e.g farmers in the forest region spend much time on the production of cocoa because of high economic returns it brings.
5. Human Factors: The norms, traditions and customs of some people determine the kind of crops that are grown in the area. For example yam and cassava are mainly grown in the southern part of Nigeria for preparation of their staple dishes while the northern Hausas and Fulanis love food made from cereals such as rice or millet, hence they grow these crops.
6. Government Policies: Government may deliberately introduce specific policies to encourage the cultivation of certain crops. For example, in many developing nations, the government may favor the production of cash crops rather than food crops in order to earn foreign exchange.
General Uses of Crops
1. For Food: The most important use of crops is the provision of food for man and livestock. Some crops are eaten raw while others have to be cooked before eating
2. For Decoration: Ornamental plants and beautiful flowers such as Hibiscus, Pride of Barbados, Rose etc beautify the environment and also give pleasant smell.
3. For industrial Purposes: Some crop plants are used as raw materials in agro-based and manufacturing industries to manufacture various products. Examples include:
a) Fibre Crops: These are crops from which fibre is obtained e.g cotton, jute, kenaf, sisal, raffia etc. The fibres are used for making cloths, sacks, carpets, twines and ropes.
b) Latex and Gum Crops: The sap (Fluid) from these crops are used for making rubber or gum (e.g Para rubber, Gum Arabic)
c) Oil Crops: Oil and fats obtained from fruits and seeds of these crops are used for the manufacture of soaps, paints and varnishes. These crops include oil palm, soyabean, coconut, shea nut, castor bean, cotton, cashew.
d) Starchy Crops: These include cereals, grains, root and stem tubers whose products are used in the manufacture of starch. The cereal grains are used in beer brewing.
END OF WEEK SIX NOTES
SOURCES OF FARM POWER
Definition of Farm power
Farm power is defined as the application of mechanical, physical, biological and electronic principles to crop and animal production as well as processing. The following are sources of Farm power:
Human power
Mechanical power
Animal power
Electrical power
Solar power
Water power
Wind power
Biogas
HUMAN POWER
This is derived from the power provided by human beings. Human effort is applied manually with the aid of man's intelligence to carry out farming operations. Human labour uses traditional tools and involves more people than all other sources of power.
Farm Operations which Require Human Power
Land clearing
Stumping
Land preparation e.g ploughing harrowing and ridging
Planting and transplanting
Fertilizer application
Pest and disease control
Weeding
Harvesting
Food processing
Livestock management
Storage
Advantages of Human Power
Human power is required in all farm operations.
Man uses his intelligence to control the work he does.
It has control over all other sources of farm power
It is easy to control and readily available.
It is the most intelligent source of power used for precision jobs
Disadvantages of Human Power
Human power is not stable. Man's energy decreases with time
Human labour can easily get fatigued or tired
Human efficiency decreases with increase in age
It is time consuming and less efficient when compared with machines
It is prone to accident on the farm
Poor state of health can affect its performance
MECHANICAL POWER
This is the power derived from machines, engines and coupled implements. They are designed to make farm operations easy and enable farmers to embark on large-scale farming. Examples are bulldozers, tractors, ploughs, ridgers planters, harvesters etc.
Farm Operations which Require Mechanical power
Land preparation e.g ploughing, harrowing, ridging
Planting
Fertilizer application
Weed control
Pest and disease control
Harvesting
Processing of farm products such as threshing, winnowing, grinding etc
Feed milling/grinding
Advantages of Mechanical Power
It can handle more land area per unit of time
It works faster and more efficiently
It reduces labour cost and overall cost of production
It is an efficient source of power
It reduces farm drudgery i.e makes farm operations less tedious
Disadvantages of Mechanical Power
A high capital investment is required.
It requires a lot of technical skills to operate
It leads to displacement of labour (unemployment)
It can cause environment pollution
Continuous use can lead to destruction of soil structure.
ANIMAL POWER
This refers to the power derived from some farm animals which are used to perform certain farm operations.
The animals are usually referred to as Draught Animals. Examples are donkeys, camels, ox, horses, bullock. Such animals are used for pulling ploughs, harrows, planters, ridgers while others are used for transportation of farm produce.
Farm Operations which Require Animal Power
it is used for pulling tillage implement such as plough harrow and ridger for land preparations
It is used for drawing planter for planting operations
It is used for transporting farm produce e.g camel donkey etc
Precautions to be observed when using draught animals
Treat animals fairly to prevent them from being hostile
Apply muzzle
Do not overwork draught animals
The best time to use the animals to work is early in the morning or in the evening
Make sure the animals are healthy
Keep the animals in a healthy environment
Feed and provide the animals with adequate water
Advantages of Animal Power
It can perform more tedious jobs than man. The output for a bull is about 500W
Maintenance costs are lower than that of machines
It can be controlled or easy to operate
Animal waste return to the soil as fertilizers
Animal can work for longer periods than man
It can operate in rugged terrains
It can be used in evacuation of produce from inaccessible areas.
Disadvantages of Animal Power
Animals are prone to diseases which may affect their work efficiency
They can eat up crops on the farm
Huge amount of money is needed to feed and maintain the animals
Poor handling of animals by their operator may result in poor performance and evil refusal to work
The use of animals is restricted to certain climatic zones e.g tse-tse fly free zones
PERIOD 3 AND 4
ELECTRICAL POWER
This is the power generated through electricity or generator used to perform farm operations.
It is a neat or clean source of power
Farm operations which require electrical power
Incubation
Milking machines
Drying of farm produce
Refrigeration
Egg candling
Brooding of chicks
Debeaking
Feed mixing
Water pumping
Shelling of seeds and grains
Defeathering/Plucking
Advantages of Electrical Power
It is very versatile i.e it can be used for various services and at different times.
It is very clean and neat
It can supply a large amount of energy.
It aids fast operation or increases production
It cannot contaminate products thus making them safe for human consumption
It is very efficient or it saves labour
Disadvantages of Electrical Power
It may be very dangerous to operate
It needs technical know how to operate
The cost of maintenance is high
Supply cannot be guaranteed at all times especially in developing countries
SOLAR POWER
This is the energy derived from the radiation light and heat reaching the earth's surface from the sun. Solar energy is trapped by photovoltaic cells or solar panels which can be converted to electrical energy and stored in batteries.
Farm operations which require solar power
Solar energy is converted to electrical energy and is used in many farm operations
Solar energy is used by crops for photosynthesis
It is used in the processing of farm produce through drying of materials like maize, cowpea, melon, cocoa, fish meat etc.
It is used in heating of farmstead
Advantages of solar power
It can be stored for later use
Solar panels have long lifespan
Solar energy technology is environmentally friendly.
It is a cheap and neat source of energy.
Disadvantages of solar power
It is available only during the day
It cannot be adjusted
It's supply cannot be controlled
It is expensive to harness or store
Excess of it can cause transpiration and evaporation
WATER POWER
Water power is the power derived from water flowing in rivers, streams and dams.
Farm Operations which Require Water Power
Water power is used to drive turbines in hydroelectric power stations to generate electricity
The electricity generated can be used in farm operations
It is used to operate steam engines
It is used by crops for normal growth
It is used in transportation e.g logs, farm goods etc.
It can be used for processing farm produce
It is used for irrigation purposes
Advantages of water power
It is very cheap
It is easy to harness
It can be easily converted to other forms of energy
Disadvantages of water power
Low level of water can lead to low electricity output
Water is not available in all areas especially in the desert
Water power is very expensive to operate
Water power could be destructive during flooding
WIND POWER
Wind power is the power generated by wind movement. The kinetic energy of the wind is converted into mechanical energy of a rotating shaft which then performs different operations
Farm operations which require wind power
Wind power is used in winnowing i.e separating chaff from grains
Operation of windmills in which the force of wind is converted to electricity
It can be used in propelling ships
It can be used in pumping water out of a borehole
It is used for drying farm produce
it is used in the sawmills where timber is processed into wood and wood products
Advantages of Wind Power
It is cheap
It is available everywhere
Wind is a renewable source of energy
Wind power is environmentally friendly
It is safe to use
Disadvantages of wind power
Its supply is sporadic and uncertain
wind energy converters work only during windy period and become idle during less windy months
It is limited to certain farm operations
It cannot be stored and it's difficult to control
Efficiency is highly varied depending on specific sites
BIOGAS
Biogas is a method of generating power by making use of farm wastes. It is a renewable resource consisting mainly of methane and carbon(iv)oxide. It is produced during anaerobic micro-bacterial degeneration processes of organic material such as manure from livestock, crop components or residues and waste materials.
Animal droppings mixed with water are accumulated in an airtight device called Digester or Dome. As it decays and anaerobically by microbes, hydrocarbon in (methane), a colorless and odorless gas is released. This hydrocarbon is stored and used for heating and lighting.
Farm operations requiring biogas
Biogas is used as source of heat for drying farm produce
It can be used to generate heat for brooding chicks
It can be used to generate heat for cooking
It can be used to generate electricity on the farm which can be utilised for other purposes
The by-products from the digester is used to produce fertilizers which is rich in ammonium compounds
Advantages of Biogas
It constitutes a cheap source of power
It can be easily controlled
It can convert chemical power in dung to heat power
Disadvantages of biogas
It is not a common source of power
it requires expertise which may not be available
It may be expensive to set up and maintain
It may be limited only to where animals are reared on a commercial basis and where dung is easily available
PERIOD 1 AND 2
MEANING OF MECHANIZATION
Mechanization is the application of engineering principles and technology in agricultural production storage, and processing on the farm.
Problems of agricultural mechanization
1. Problem of Land Tenure System: The prevalent land tenure system in most West African countries does not allow for large farm holdings suitable for mechanization
2. Scattered Farm holdings: Scattered farm holdings are not suitable or economical for mechanization particularly in West Africa.
3. Poverty of farmers: Most farmers in West Africa cannot afford the cost of tractors and Farm implements
4. Inadequate facilities: Facilities or machines for fabrication and repairing farm implements are grossly insufficient where they are available.
5. Bad topography: Most West African landscapes are too rough and are not conducive for farm mechanization.
6. Varied soil types: Most west African countries e.g Nigeria still depend on imported machinery which is not too suitable for our soil which is extremely varied.
7. Inadequate Spare Parts: Most spare parts of machines in Nigeria are still imported and are mostly unavailable
8. Problems of Stumps and Logs: During clearing, heavy stumps and logs are usually left behind and they cause additional problems in mechanization.
Advantages of Agricultural Mechanization
1. Timeliness of operation: Farm mechanization ensures that all farm operations are done and completed within a short period of time
2. It saves labour: In farm mechanization, most human efforts are substituted with machines. Hence, labour saved could be employed elsewhere
3. It reduces health hazards: Health hazards posed by knives cause storms passed ctcr reduced
4. Reduction of drudgery: The use of farm mechanization makes it easy to avoid unpleasant manual jobs
5. Increase in Farm revenues: Mechanization leads to higher yield which makes farmers richer
6. It encourages large-scale farming: Mechanization allows cultivation of large firms which leads to high yield
7. Increase in Output Mechanization makes it possible for farmers output in terms of production harvest or yield to increase.
8. It encourages specialisation of labour: People become specialized in certain farm operations within the farm through mechanization
9. Cooperation among farmers: Mechanization enables many farmers to come together and pool their resources together thereby encouraging or promoting cooperation among farmers
10. Reduction in cost of operation : It leads to reduction in cost of agricultural operations per unit output.
11. Improvement in quality of produce: Farm mechanization usually improves the quality of some farm produce e.g rice processing, cassava processing
Disadvantages of agricultural mechanization
1. High cost: Farm mechanization with the use of various farm machines is usually expensive to operate.
2. Displacement of workers: In farm mechanization very few workers are required hence, it renders many people out of job
3. Compaction of soil: Mechanization leads to soil compaction due to movement of heavy vehicles
4. It causes environmental pollution: This is due to smoke emanating from machines chemicals and fertilizer usage
5. Degradation of Landscape Mechanization causes the degradation of landscape as a result of continuous excavation
6. Destruction of soil structure This can occur due to movement and usage of machines
7. Few crops can be mechanized: Few crops like maize, rice, guinea corn, millet etc. can easily be mechanized
8. Inadequate technical know-how: There is inadequate technical know-how on the use and handling of farm machines and equipment
9. Inadequate spare parts: Most spare parts or replaceable parts are not always available
10. High cost of maintenance: There is usually high cost of maintenance particularly for heavy machines.
PERIOD 3
Limitations of Farm Mechanization
The major factors limiting agricultural mechanization in Nigeria can be discussed under the following major headings:
A. Economic limitation
B. Technical limitation
C. Lack of maintenance
D. Small farm holdings
1. Economic limitation: This includes:
i. Machines are not readily available in Nigeria
ii. Cost of maintaining machines is high
iii. Most farmers are poor and cannot afford to purchase machines
iv. Cost of hiring machines is high
v. Operators of machines demand higher pay/wages which most farmers cannot afford
2. Technical limitation: This includes:
i. Lack of technical know-how of the machines
ii. Experts on these machines are not readily available
iii. Mode of operations of most machines are not known
iv. Only a few schools exist for the training of machine operators
v. Most of the machines are not adapted to our local environment
3. Lack of maintenance: This includes:
i. Spare parts for replacement are not readily available
ii. There are inadequate trained personnel to repair farm machines when broken down
iii. Most machines are imported from other countries
iv. Facilities for maintenance and repair are not readily available
4. Small Farm Holdings: This include:
i. Mechanization cannot be practiced due to the prevailing land tenure system which causes fragmentation
ii. Agriculture is mostly practiced by peasant farmers in West Africa.
iii. Peasant farmers have small area of farmland which are not usually mechanized
PERIOD 4
Reasons why agriculture has not been fully mechanized in West Africa
1. Farming systems currently being practiced in West Africa do not encourage mechanization.
2. There are no access roads for machines
3. Heavy tree stumps left after land clearing hinder the use of machinery
4. Inadequate capital or credit facilities
5. There is inadequate extension services or education for farmers
6. Unfavourable soil terrain or topography presents mechanization
7. Inadequate Farm labourers or farm hands to enhance mechanization
8. Poor market structures or system for agricultural produce discourages farmers from large-scale production
Prospects of Mechanization and Possible Ways of Improving Agriculture through Mechanization
1. The government should establish agricultural engineering schools or institutions to train personnel and students
2. The land tenure system should be reviewed to enable farmers acquire large hectares of land
3. Government should provide loans to enable farmers purchase farm machines
4. Farmers should form cooperative societies to enable them pool their resources together to buy farm machines
5. Simple and less expensive machines should be developed
6. Farmers should be educated to accept modern systems of farming especially in the areas of mechanization
Period 1
TRACTOR COUPLED IMPLEMENTS
Tractor coupled implement are devices which are attached to or mounted to a tractor in order to accomplish specific operations on the farm. Examples are plough, harrow, ridger, planter slasher, baler, cultivator, sprayer mower, fertilizer applicator, harvester combine drill etc
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY TILLAGE IMPLEMENTS
Primary Tillage implements
These are implements used to break and turn the soil over to form clods or lumps e.g plough
Secondary Tillage implement
These are implements used after ploughing to break soil lumps into fine tilth/particles or for ridging. Examples are harrow cultivator, ridger. They are used after ploughing to pulverize the soil
Reasons why secondary tillage is necessary before sowing of seeds
1. It provides fine tilth for seed germination and emergence
2. It enhances good soil structure for better root development
3. It improves soil aeration
4. It controls weeds whose seeds have become exposed on tillage thus reducing early weed competition
5. It improves infiltration or soil water circulation
THE PLOUGH
Ploughs are implements used to break and turn the soil over. It is a primary tillage implement required in land preparation. It is mainly driven by tractor or work animals
Types of plough
There are two main types of plough these are
(a) Disc plough
(b) Mouldboard plough
Disc Plough
Disc Plough is a strong implement adapted to tropical environment where the soil contains stones, hard pans and roots of plants. It makes deeper cuts than mouldboard plough
Parts of a Disc plough and their Functions
1. Beam or frame: It holds the plough in position for attachment of the discs. It also bears additional weight for greater depth
2. Coupling point: This provides point of attachment to the tractor or work animal
3. Scrapper: It helps to remove soil or mud that cling to the disc
4. Concave disc or disc: It rotates and makes vertical and horizontal cuts as the tractor moves forward. It also inverts the soil.
5. Disc bearing: It holds the disc and allows its continuous rotation
6. Furrow wheel: It provides a balancing effect for the plough as it supports both vertical and side thrusts
7. Spring: It acts as shock absorber for the plough during movement
8. Standard: It holds the disc firmly to the beam
9. Beam cap: It covers the hollow end of the beam
Mouldboard plough
The mouldboard plough is adapted for use in temperate or light soil where there are no obstructions from tree stumps, rocks, stones, hard pans and plant roots.
Parts of a Mouldboard Plough and their functions
1. Beam or Frame: It carries the plough and other components and provides additional weight for greater depth.
2. Coultier or Vertical disc: It makes vertical cuts/furrows
3. Share or share point: This makes vertical cuts and uproots weeds
4. Mouldboard: This carries the soil, inverts the weeds or exposes the root of weeds
5. Standard: It bears attachment for the mouldboard, share and landslide
6. Landslide: This provides stability for the implement during operation
Functions of a Plough
1. It cuts the soil and turns it over forming clods or lumps
2. The use of plough helps to improve water circulation in the soil
3. The operation of a plough helps to improve aeration or air movement in the soil
4. The operation of a plough helps to control weeds by burying weeds into the soil
5. It also increases the organic matter content of the soil by buryring plants and crop residues during operation thereby improving fertility
6. It helps to mix the mineral and organic matter of the soil together.
Reasons why Disc Plough is preferred to Mouldboard plough for soils in West Africa
1. The soil in West Africa often contains many obstacles such as rock and stumps buried in the soil over which Disc Plough can easily roll
2. Soil surfaces are generally hard in West Africa which can be more easily worked by the disc plough than the mouldboard plough
3. Disc Plough cuts deeper than mouldboard plough
4. Disc Plough buries weeds more effectively than mouldboard plough
5. Disc Plough works better on heavy or clay soil than mouldboard plough
Period 3
HARROW
Harrow is a secondary tillage implement designed to break up soil lumps and level soil surface after ploughing. Examples of harrow are
1. Zig-zag harrow
2. Chain harrow
3. Disc harrow
4. Spike-tooth harrow
5. Rotavator
6. Spring tine cultivator
Important parts of the harrow are handle, drawbar, scrapper, steel disc or discs and wheels
Functions of Disc Harrow
1. It breaks soil lumps or clods created by the plough into fine particles of soil
2. It pulverizes the soil and levels it thereby putting it in a better tilth for the planting operation.
3. It is used to cover seeds with soil e.g in rice production
4. It is used for covering fertilizers with soil
5. It helps to spread organic manure on the farm and mix them with soil
6. Its operation helps to improve water infiltration and aeration
Spring-tine cultivator
It is a type of harrow with vertical stalks. The vertical stalks of the spring tine cultivator are bent forward to enable it till the soil and withstand obstacles within the soil.
Functions of the Spring-tine cultivator
1. It breaks down large soil lumps which remain after ploughing
2. It combs weeds i.e removes weeds from the soil surface
3. It drags roots and stem out of the soil
4. It can be used for weeding and fertilizer application
5. It stirs the soil without turning it over
RIDGER
Ridger is a secondary tillage implement used for making ridges on the farm it is used after harrowing and before planting. The two types of ridgers are
(a) Disc Ridger and
(b) Mouldboard Ridger
The ridger is made entirely of strong metal and its shape is longitudinally symmetrical. it consists of five discs, two in each part facing each other
Functions of the Ridger
1. It is mainly used for making ridges
2. The operation of the ridger eases the penetration of root and tuber crops
3. It improves aeration and eases water percolation in the soil
4. It helps to control erosion as water flows along the furrows
5. It prevents growth of weeds after use
6. It collects together rich top soil thus increasing nutrient availability
Maintenance of tillage Implements
1. Keep implements clean by removing all trashes and mud from them at the start and end of operations
2. Ensure that nuts, caps, screws or shields are tight
3. Grease metal joints or bearings regularly
4. Adhere strictly to manual or manufacturer's instructions
5. Replace worn out parts
6. Keep implements in a cool and dry place or shed
7. Employ a competent and experienced tractor operator to ensure the use of implements properly
Period 4
PLANTERS
These are machines or implements designed mainly for planting operations
Types of Planters
1. Broadcast Crop Planter or Broadcaster. It plants seeds by randomly scattering them about the field
2. Row-crop Planter: It plants seeds along the rows in a ridge
3. Precision Planter: It places the correct number of seed(s) into a hole with regular spacing within and between rows
4. Grain Drill Planters: It places the correct number of seeds into the soil and space them between rows but not within rows
5. Hand Operated Precision Seed Drill or Manual Planter: It has a large container or Hopper and many other components.
Parts of a manual planter include: Handles, Coupling Point, Wheels, Seedbox or Hopper, Seed tube Furrow opener, Furrow covering device, Roller and Marker
Functions of planters
They are designed primarily to plant seeds of crops such as cotton, maize, guinea corn, rice cowpea e t c
Maintenance of Planter
1. It should be used for the purpose for which it is designed
2. It should be dismantled and washed or cleaned after use
3. Metal parts should be oiled or greased to prevent rusting
4. Bolts and nuts should be inspected and tightened regularly
HARVESTERS
These are machines or implements designed for harvesting mature fruits grains and other useful part of crops
Types of Harvesters
1. Mower: used to cut grass or forage crops for livestock consumption
2. Corn picker: used to cut off mature cobs within rows
3. Forage harvester: designed to harvest and chop green row crops. It combines the work of row crop binder and silage cutter and also prevents loss of moisture
4. Combine harvester: It combines the functions of harvesting, threshing, winnowing of grain crops and ensures passage of grains and chaff through different nozzles.
5. Root crop harvester: used to harvest root crops like cassava tubers
SPRAYER
These are equipment designed to spray certain chemicals in various farm operations
Functions of Sprayer
1. It is used for spraying insecticides, fungicides and pesticides to control pest and diseases of crops
2. It is used to spray herbicides to control weeds
3. It is used to apply liquid fertilizer through foliar application
4. It can be used for light irrigation on vegetable beds
5. it is used for spraying disinfectant on livestock houses and structures
Types of sprayers
1. Knapsack (Pneumatic) sprayer
2. Tractor mounted sprayer or Boom sprayer
3. Helicopter mounted sprayer
Components of a Knapsack Sprayer
1. Tank or container: It holds the liquid
2. Pump: To generate pressure
3. Flexible pipe or Hose: To convey liquid from the tank to the on-off lever
4. Pump handle: To effect pressure generation in the pump
5. Extension pipe or Lance: To convey liquid from the on-off lever to the nozzle
6. On-off lever: It regulates the flow of liquid chemical
7. Nozzle: For discharging liquid in fine droplets
Precautions to take when spraying
1. Do not spray on a windy day and do not spray against the wind but in the direction of the wind
2. Avoid smoking, eating or drinking while spraying
3. Enure the sprayer is in a good condition before starting
4. Wear protective clothing and nose mask when spraying
5. Do not blow blocked nozzles with the mouth
6. Avoid walking into areas freshly sprayed.
Maintenance of Knapsack Sprayer
1. Wash and clean the tank, the filter and nozzle with water after use
2. Check the sprayer for leakages and block any leakage
3. Replaced damaged or worn-out parts
4. Remove nozzle, clean and store separately
5. Turn the container upside down after washing to drain properly
6. Store sprayer in a cool, dry place
End of week 2 notes. Ensure you write the notes, draw the diagrams properly and study the note
Also do not forget to watch videos and listen to audios on the teachings, work on your assignments and submit at the right time
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